Tacheng (or Qoqek) in northwestern Xinjiang is an ancient city and
once served as an important commercial town on the ancient Silk Road. It is a
county-level city and the capital of Tacheng Prefecture, in northern Ili Kazakh
Autonomous Prefecture, Xinjiang, China. Sometimes called Tarbaghatay or
Tarbagatai (local Turkic speakers know it as Chöchek, Chawchak or Chuguchak) the
city is located in the Dzungarian basin, some 10 km from the Kazakhstan border.
It is a major center for trade with Central Asia. Attractions include the
Badanxing Nature Reserve, Sarkule Lake, and Baketu Port.
Tafur
Pero Tafur A native and notable of Cordoba, born ca. 1410, Tafur
traveled from Spain to the Eastern Mediterranean and back. While not a merchant,
he was very interested in commercial affairs and well connected with the trading
networks. He travelled in Egypt, the Black Sea region, and Constantinople.
Taklamakan (Taklimakan) is a
desert in
Central
Asia, in the
Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the
People's Republic of China (west of the
Gobi Desert). It is the world's
17th largest desert. It is bounded by the
Kunlun Mountains to the south, and the
Pamir Mountains and
Tian Shan
(ancient
Mount Imeon) to the west and north. There is very little water in this desert
region, and it is hazardous to cross. Merchant caravans on the
Silk Road
would stop for relief at the thriving
oasis towns.
Mummies, some perhaps 4000 years old, have been found in the region. More...
Talas River In 751 the
Abbasid Caliphate defeated the
Tang
Dynasty in the
Battle of Talas in Central Asia. During the
Battle of Talas (named after the river) the combined Arab and Turkic forces
defeated the invading Tang Chinese blocking the westward expansion of the Tang
Dynasty.
More...
Talgar In the 9th century a fortification belonging to the head of a
Turkic tribe was founded on the place of Talgar settlement. The location was
chosen because it was on the
Silk Road
at the foothills of
Zailiisky Alatau, incorporating rich land resources and summer pastures.
With time Talgar settlement became popular with merchants and craftsmen. Pik Talgar is a northern peak in the
Tian Shan
mountain range in
Kazakhstan,
named after the Talgar
river and city. It is the highest peak of the
Trans-Ili Alatau.
Tamerlane (See Timur)
Tana This ancient city in the northeast corner of the Black
Sea marked the western end of a major trade route extending all the way across
Asia to China.
Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) The height of the importance of
the Silk Road was during the
Tang Dynasty in China, known as "a
golden age of cosmopolitan culture." During this period of the
Pax Sinica,
the Silk Road reached its golden age, whereby
Persian and
Sogdian merchants benefited from the commerce between East and West. At the
same time, the Chinese empire was host to many foreign cultures in its urban
centers. The period of the Tang Dynasty is known for innovations. It was also at
this time that religion was able to spread rapidly and freely along the Silk
Routes. Despite the death of Mohammed in 632 AD, Islam was spreading rapidly as
were other religions. There is a great deal of evidence that pilgrims and
missionaries were present in Chang'an (near modern day Xi’an), the capital of
the dynasty as well as the starting point of the Silk Road. At the the time,
Europe was still in the Dark
Ages not knowing in the future it would be indebted to the traders and
empires of the Silk Routes, who preserved ancient knowledge that was passed on
to the West.
Although the Silk Road from China to the West
was initially formulated during the reign of
Emperor Wu of Han (141-87 BC), it was revived by the Tang Dynasty in 639 when
Hou Junji
(d. 643) conquered western regions, and remained open for almost four decades. It was
closed after the Tibetans captured it in 678, but in 699, during Empress Wu's
period, the Silk Road reopened when the Tang reconquered the
Four Garrisons of Anxi originally installed in 640, once again connecting
China directly to the West for land-based trade.
In 692, with the last defeat of the Tibetans (and a brief seizure of Kucha by
Turgesh in 709) the Four Garrisons were permanently controlled by the Chinese
thereafter. The Tang captured the vital route through the Gilgit Valley
from Tibet in 722, lost it to the Tibetans in 737, and regained it under the
command of the Goguryeo-Korean General Gao Xianzhi. After the An Shi Rebellion
ended in 763, the Tang Empire had once again lost control over many of its outer
western lands, as the Tibetans largely cut off China's direct access to the Silk
Road. An internal rebellion in 848 ousted the Tibetan rulers, while Tang China
regained its western territories from Tibet in 851. (See Bayanchur Khan)
More...
During the Tang Dynasty there was great contact with, and interest, in India
as a source for Buddhist knowledge. The well-known traveler Xuanzang (d. 664),
after a 17-year long trip, brought back to China valuable
Sanskrit
texts to be translated into
Chinese. More...Islam during the Tang Dynastywas spreading rapidly as were other
religions.More...
The Tang capital of
Chang'an became a great international metropolis, with traders and embassies
from Central Asia, Arabia, Persia, Korea, and Japan using the Silk Routes. A
Nestorian Christian community also existed there, while mosques were established
in Guangzhou (Canton). Buddhism enjoyed great favour, and there were new
translations of the Buddhist scriptures. Poetry was the greatest glory of the
period; nearly 50,000 works by 2,000 poets survive. Foreign music and dance
became popular, and ancient orchestras were revived. The economy flourished in
the 8th – 9th centuries, with a network of rural market towns growing up to join
the metropolitan markets of Chang'an and Luoyang.
A Tang Dynasty ceramic
camel that carries a small musical band with a female performer at the Shaanxi
Museum.
During the Tang Dynasty, thousands of foreigners came and lived in numerous
Chinese cities for trade and commercial ties with China, including Persians,
Arabs, Indians,
Malays,
Sinhalese,
Khmers, Chams,
Jews, and
Nestorian Christians of the
Near East.
Tangut Empire (Western Xia) existed from 1038 to 1227 AD in
what are now the northwestern Chinese provinces of Ningxia, Gansu, eastern
Qinghai, northern Shaanxi, northeastern Xinjiang, southwest Inner Mongolia, and
southernmost Outer Mongolia. It suffered from devastating destruction by the
Mongols who founded the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368). The state occupied the area of
important trade route between North China, Central Asia, and the Hexi Corridor.
It made significant achievements in literature, art, music, and architecture. More...
Tantras The name for the scriptures of the Vajrayana (a
method of Buddhist practice).
Taoism (or Daoism) refers to a variety
of related philosophical and religious traditions that have influenced Eastern
Asia for more than two millennia. More...
Some of the most well-known mummies
in the world are "The Tarim Basin mummies." They represent a span of
history dating from 1800 BC to as recently as the Ching Dynasty (1644-1912). See
Mummies. More...
A mummy from the
Xinjiang Museum in Urumchi.
Tartar Tartar tribes near borders of China found several of
their own dynasties (907 - 1227). More...
Tashkurgan The name Tashkurgan, which means “stone
tower,” refers to the structure thought to have marked the midway point between
Europe and China. According to legend, this tower is also the site of the
world’s first silk trade, bartered in dumb show between merchants from the East
and the West–a theory that is highly disputed, as the region boasts numerous
unmarked stone towers.
Tashkent The capital of Uzbekistan and a major trading point on the
historic Silk
Road.
The Ancient Settlement of Minguruk Tashkent
Tavernier
Jean Baptiste Tavernier (1629-1675)French merchant/jeweler, who may have known the overland trade routes through Persia better than any other European in
the seventeenth century. His six voyages took him to the Ottoman Empire, Safavid
Persia, and Mughal India. His interactions with the merchant communities (notably
the Armenians in Persia) gave him an insider's perspective. His account reflects
the editing of a professional writer, but is precise and detailed.
Tax Merchants carrying goods along the silk, spice and incense routes
not only had to plan for travel and transportation costs, but also had to be
prepared to pay taxes, and money for protection of their goods against bandits.
Regional authorities made a profit as they levied taxes (imposed and collected
by legal authority) on foreign traders passing through their regions. The
revenue (money) from taxes was so great that wars were fought in order to
control the lucrative and profitable trade along different sections of the trade
routes. Not only were wars fought, but cities also suffered the consequences if
taxes were not collected (such as the city of Balkh
in northern Afghanistan, which was destroyed by the Mongols after a rebellion).
Taxkorgan (Puli, or Jiepantuo) The Taxkorgan Valley, amidst huge
mountain ranges, is by the border of China and Pakistan. There is a large
fortress where Marco Polo and other travelers have passed along thier journeys.
Taxkorgan is on the ancient Silk Road from where China's ancient civilizations
went out to the west, and from where western civilizations came to China. The
name Taxkorgan means "Stone Castle" in Uyghur.
Taxila is a city in the
Punjab province of Pakistan,
just off the Grand Trunk
Road. It is one of the most important archaeological sites in Asia, situated
strategically on a branch of the Silk Road that linked China to the West, the
city flourished both economically and culturally. Taxila reached its apogee
between the 1st and 5th centuries AD. Historically, this city lay at the
crossroads of three major trade routes: 1) The northern road—later Grand Trunk
Road—the royal road which connected Gandhara in the west to the kingdom of
Magadha and its capital in the valley of the Ganges in the east. 2) The
northwestern route through Bactria. 3) The Sindu (Indus river) route from
Kashmir and Central Asia, via Sri nagara, Mansehra, and the Haripur valley
across the Khunjerab pass to the Silk Road in the north to the Indian Ocean in
the south. The Khunjerab passes between Kashmir and Xinjiang China—the current
Karakoram highway—and was traversed in antiquity. In 1980, Taxila was declared a
UNESCO World Heritage Site with multiple locations. It has been ranked as the
top tourist destination in Pakistan. More...UNESCO
Te
Ch'ang Te (1259-1260) Envoy from Mongol Khan Möngke to his brother Hülegü soon after the
latter's conquest of the Abbasid Chaliphate. Ch'ang Te's Si Shi Ki,
recorded by Liu Yu, is part travel diary and part a second-hand account of
Hülegü's campaigns in the West.
Tea plants are native to East and South Asia and probably originated
around the point of confluence of the lands of northeast India, north Burma,
southwest China, and Tibet. The usage of tea as a beverage is first recorded in
the Chinese classics Shennong Ben Cao Jing. It was already a common drink during
Qin Dynasty (around 200 BC) and became widely popular during Tang Dynasty, when
it was spread to Korea and Japan. Chinese tea ceremonies, offerings, culture and
customs spread in China for thousands of years. The export and trade of tea by
the Chinese during the 19th century, spread tea to Western nations and numerous
locations around the world. More...
Tehran (Rey) Once famous for its palaces, its lusterware,
and its secrecy: In A.D. 67, Parthians resolutely misled a Chinese envoy,
telling him that the journey to Roman Syria would take more than two years and
that most people died of homesickness on the way. He turned back, ensuring that
the overland Silk Road trade remained in Persian hands. Rey was also damaged by
the Mongol warriors, in 1221.
Temple A temple (from the Latin word
templum) is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual
activities. More...
Temujin (or Timucin, See Genghiz Khan)
Tenggeli Desert is mostly located within the boundary of Zhaogetuhuresumu of
Alashan County (together with Moon Lake - Tenggeli Dalai) is in the
Inner Mongolia
Autonomous Region of China.. The Tenggeli Desert is China's fourth largest
desert. Chinese geographers divide the region into three
smaller deserts, the Tengger (Tengri) Desert in the south, the Badain Jaran
(Baden Dzareng, or Batan Tsalang) in the west, and the Ulan Buh (Wulanbuhe) in
the northeast.
Tengriism (or Tengrianism) is a religion that incorporates elements of
shamanism, animism, totemism and ancestor worship. It was the major belief of
the Xiongnu, Mongols, Turkic peoples, Hungarian and Bulgar peoples in ancient
times. It focuses around the sky deity Tengri (also Tangri, Tanrı, Tangra) and
reverence for the sky in general. Today, there are still a large number of
Tengriist people living in Northern and Central Asia, such as the Khakas and
Tuvans. "Khökh" and "Tenger" literally mean "blue" and "sky" in Mongolian. Many
Mongolians today still pray to "Mönkh Khökh Tengri" ("Eternal Blue Sky").
Therefore Mongolia is called the "Land of Eternal Blue Sky" ("Mönkh Khökh
Tengriin Oron" in Mongolian).
Terra Cotta Army (Terra Cotta horses and armored warriors)is part of an elaborate mausoleum created to protect
and accompany the first Emperor of China into the afterlife. The life-size
warriors and horses form a collection of terracotta sculptures depicting the
armies of Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of China. The figures, dating from
210 BC, were discovered in 1974 by local farmers near Xi'an, Shaanxi province, China
near the tomb of Emperor Qin. Patches of paint hint at once brightly
colored clothes. Further excavations have revealed swords, arrow tips, and other
weapons, many in pristine condition.
Terra cotta warriors and horses at the tomb of China's first
Emperor Qin
Tianchi Lake (See Heavenly Lake)
Tianshan Mountains (Tian Shan, Heavenly Mountains) (Chinese:
天山 "celestial mountains"; Uygur:
تەڭرىتاغ, Tengri Tagh); Turkish: Tanrı Dağları (Tien-Şan); is a
mountain range located in
Central
Asia. The Chinese name for Tian Shan or Tien Shan, may in turn go back to a
Xiongnu name,
qilian (祁连) reported by
the
Shiji as the homeland of the
Yuezhi. A
nearby mountain range, the
Tannu-Ola Mountains (Tuvan:
Таңды-Уула Tangdy-Uula), also bears a synonymous name ("heavenly/celestial
mountains" or "god/spirit mountains").
In Western cartography, the eastern end of the Tian Shan is usually
understood to be west of Ürümqi, while the range to the east of Ürümqi
is known as the Bogda Shan. However, in Chinese cartography, from the
Han Dynasty to the present, the Tian Shan is also considered to include
the Bogda Shan and Barkol ranges. The Tian Shan are a part of the
Himalayan orogenic belt which was formed by the collision of the Indian
and Eurasian plates in the Cenozoic era. They are one of the longest
mountain ranges in Central Asia, stretching some 2,800 kilometres (1,700
mi) eastward from Tashkent in Uzbekistan. More...
Tianshui was a hub of the Silk Road that now includes many places of
interest, such as holy sites of the Silk Road, the Maijishan Grottoes, Fuxi
Temple, and Yuquan Taoist Temple in east Gansu, China.
Tibet The Tibet Autonomous Region of the
People's
Republic of China is located in the southwest part of the
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (a vast, elevated plateau in Central Asia covering most of
the Tibet Autonomous Region and Qinghai Province, in addition to smaller
portions of western Sichuan, southwestern Gansu, and northern Yunnan in China).
The Chinese provinces of Xinjiang, Qinghai and Sichuan lie to the north,
northeast, and east, respectively. On the southeast is Yunnan province. The
Tibet Autonomous Region shares borders with Kashmir to the west, and to the
South with Nepal, Myanmar, Bhutan, India and Sikkim (which in 1975 became a
state of the Indian Union however was not recognized by China). The Tibet
Autonomous Region accounts for one eighth of China's total land mass, and is the
second-largest
province-level division of China by area after the
Xinjiang
Uyghur Autonomous Region. The region has various complex landforms
such as high and steep mountains, deep valleys, glaciers, and deserts. The
region lies at an average altitude of more than 4,000 meters. Mount
Everest is located on Tibet's border with
Nepal (the world's tallest
peak). It is roughly divided into four areas: the north Tibet plateau, the south
Tibet valley, east Tibet mountains and valleys, and Himalaya Mountains.
It has been over 700 years since Tibet was officially incorporated into
China's territory during the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), founded by Kublai
(Khubilai) Khan. In 1215, the year Kublai was born, the Mongols made their first
major incursion into North China and initiated a period of extraordinary
creativity in the arts that was encouraged by the confluence of many cultures
and ethnic groups. This period lasted approximately 150 years and had its
greatest flowering in the Yuan Dynasty.
In the early 13th century after Genghis Khan established the Mongol Khanate
and conquered Western Xia and the "Western Regions," his grandson Godan Khan
began to march into Central Asia. Godan Khan's base camp was stationed in
Liangzhou, present-day Wuwei in northwestern China's Gansu Province. When China
was ruled by the Mongols, the Sakya school governed Tibet as a tributary to the
Mongols. After the death of Kublai Khan in 1295, the power of the Mongols in
Central Asia began to wane, and by the second half of the fourteenth century,
they had lost power over China, as well as Tibet.
After Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty, the Central Government of the
Yuan Dynasty set up the Xuanzheng Administration to handle religious and ethnic
affairs in Tibet. Later the Central Government conferred on the Sakya sect the
right of governance in Tibet. Tibet, instead of being a province, was directly
governed by the Xuanzheng Administration of the Central Government with 13 wanhu
(administrative divisions). Government officials above the wanhu level were
designated by the emperor himself, while other Tibetan officials under the wanhu
level were recommended by the leader of the Sakya sect for approval of the
emperor. The Central Government of the Yuan Dynasty exercised all-round
administration over Tibet, such as sending Mongolian troops to Tibet, three
checks on the registered permanent residence, encouraging the implementation of
the laws and regulations of the central government, establishment of a tax
system and 17 daks linked to inland areas. Since the Central Government of the
Yuan Dynasty governed Tibet via the administration of the Sakya sect, the Sakya
Monastery was well maintained. Featuring the architectural characteristics of
the Yuan Dynasty, the monastery has more Tibetan historical records and Buddhist
scriptures than other monasteries.
Scholars have described this period of art and history as one where new art
forms and styles were generated in China, and along the Silk Road, as a result
of the unification of China under the Yuan Dynasty, and the massive influx of
craftsmen from all over the vast Mongol Empire which stretched from the Sea of
Japan to the Caspian Sea (with reverberations in Italian art of the fourteenth
century). Displays of religious and secular art, including paintings, sculpture,
gold and silver, textiles, ceramics, lacquer, and other decorative arts, can be
found in museums throughout China and the world.
The famous Potala Palace, in the capital city of Lhasa in Tibet, contains the
stupa tombs of previous Dalai Lamas who resided here, and halls for worshipping
Buddha. The palace preserves a large number of precious cultural relics, such as
the Bkar-vgyur (Buddha's teachings) from India, and the imperial edicts and
golden seals of the Qing emperors on conferring titles on the Dalai Lamas. Along
with Jokhang Monastery, and Norbu Lingka, the Potala Palace has been included in
the UNESCO World Heritage List. The architectural beauty and originality of
these sites, and their rich ornamentation and harmonious integration in a
striking landscape, add to their historic and religious interest.
More...
Tibet, Buddhism & the Silk Road Remnants of Tibetan rule in Central
Asia were found in two military establishments, the fort at the town of Miran
near the Tarim basin, and the fort of Mazar-tagh in the western part of the
Taklamakan desert. Although Buddhist manuscripts have been found at these sites,
the greatest discovery was made in the monastic cave complex at Dunhuang,
located along the Silk Routes.
The Tibetan manuscripts from Dunhuang belong to the two centuries of Tibetan
influence in Central Asia, from the mid-seventh to early ninth centuries, and
are the earliest known large group of Tibetan Buddhist manuscripts. The
manuscripts cover a great range of Buddhist literature. There are versions of
the vinaya (the regulations for Buddhist monks) and various sutras and tantras,
as well as later commentaries on them. In the region of
Khara-Khoto, in what is
now Inner Mongolia, Buddhist manuscripts in Tibetan and Mongolian dating from
the thirteenth century onwards, have also been discovered. In the cave complex
at Dunhuang, caves decorated with Vajrayana deities in the Tibetan style,
probably from the same period, were discovered.
The introduction of Buddhism into Tibet occurred over the same period as
Tibetan influence in Central Asia. King Trisong Detsen (755-797), under whose
rule the Tibetan Empire achieved great success, is better known to Tibetan
tradition as the king who brought Buddhism to Tibet. Buddhist texts from India,
China, and probably
Khotan
as well, were systematically translated into Tibetan. The end of this first
flourishing of Buddhism in Tibet also occurred in parallel with the collapse of
the Tibetan dynasty. Lang Darma (the last of the kings) was according to Tibetan
tradition, firmly anti-Buddhist, and destroyed the monastic structure which had
developed over the previous century.
It was not until the eleventh century that the influence of Buddhism began to
increase again in Tibet. New translations of the scriptures, especially tantras,
were produced, and new schools formed based on tantric lineages from India. This
is known as the second transmission of Buddhism into Tibet. The most important
of the new schools were the Sakya, the Kagyu and the Geluk, while those who
adhered to older lineages were known as Nyingma, "the old ones." The influence
of the Sakya school in Tibet waned after the end of Mongol power in the
mid-fourteenth century, and another of the new schools, the Geluk became more
influential, eventually coming to rule over most of Tibet under the leadership
of the Dalai Lamas. In time the Geluk school gained the allegiance of most
Mongolians. Generally the Tibetan and Mongolian schools taught a gradual path to
enlightenment which combines the teachings of the
Mahayana sutras with the teachings of the
Vajrayana. More...
Tibetan Art & Manuscripts Along the Silk Road Although Tibet is not
located upon the Silk Road, Tibetan manuscripts found in Dunhuang along the Silk
Road (estimated to date from the eighth and ninth centuries) are part of a
larger discovery of material from the 5th to early 11th centuries. These
manuscripts include works ranging from history and mathematics, to folk songs
and dance. While most of the religious documents are about Buddhism, there are a
number on Taoism, Nestorianism, and even Judaism. They are written primarily in
Chinese, but also include Tibetan, Pali, Sogdian, and previously unknown
languages, such as Khotanese.More...
It is also well documented that the art of Tibet flourished during the Yuan
Dynasty. "The World of Khubilai Khan: Chinese Art in the Yuan Dynasty"
exhibition catalogue of 2010 is a comprehensive study of the art and culture
produced at this time by the Chinese, and by the highly skilled craftsmen from
Western and Central Asia who were selected for their abilities and brought
together in Northern Chinese workshops, where they exchanged ideas, styles, and
art forms. The works they produced created a new art style that would influence
the arts of China in all subsequent periods. The studies examine the origins of
new art forms, daily life in Yuan China, in particular at the imperial court and
in the capital cities of Xanadu (Shangdu) and Dadu (Beijing), and the impact on
the arts of the religions practiced at this time, including Buddhism, Daoism,
Christianity, Manichaeism, Hinduism, and Islam. More...
Timur
(Tamerlane) founder of the Timurid Empire. Timur belonged to a Turco-Mongol
tribe, and was the great great
grandfather of Babur, the founder of the Mughal Dynasty.
In the 14th century he settled in Transoxiana from where
his empire grew to include the whole of Central Asia,
Iran, modern
Afghanistan, as well as large parts of Pakistan, India,
Mesopotamia,
Anatolia
and the
Caucasus. More...
Timurid Empire The Timurid Dynasty emerged from the Central
Asian Steppe, and in 1370 established Samarkand as the capital of the empire.
The Timurids conquered
Asia from Egypt and Syria to the borders of China. Within thirty-five years, the empire included all of
Central Asia, greater Iran, and Iraq, as well as parts of southern Russia and
the Indian subcontinent. To the west, Timurid forces defeated the Mamluk army in
Syria, and that of the Ottomans at Ankara (1400–2). In 1405, while preparing to
invade China, Timur, the founder of the empire, died.More...
Samarkand, the Capital of the Timurid Empire
By bringing craftsmen from
different conquered lands to his capital in Samarqand,
Timur initiated one of
the most brilliant periods in Islamic
art. Timurid art and
architecture provided inspiration to lands stretching from Turkey to India.
More...
Toprak Qala Many desert castles can be found in the desert areas of
ancient Khorezm, in Uzbekistan. One of the best known is Toprak Qala. In
addition, palaces and fortresses in the region that are well known consists of
the following: Ayaz Qala, Koy-Kirilgan Qala, Big Guldursun Qala, Pil Qala, Anka
Qala, Kurgashin Qala and Djanbas Qala.
Trabzon (Trebizond) is a city on the Black Sea coast of north-eastern
Turkey. Trabzon became a trading center located on the northern routes of the
Silk Road, as well as a trade gateway to Iran in the southeast, Russia and the
Caucasus to the northeast. Venetian and Genoese merchants paid visits to Trabzon
during the medieval period and sold silk, linen and woolen fabric (with the
Genoese having an important merchant colony within the city, which was similar
to Galata in present-day Istanbul. During the Ottoman period, Trabzon, because
of the importance of its port, became a focal point of trade to Iran, India and
the Caucasus.
Trading goods (items, merchandise, products, commodities) Various
goods were bartered & traded along the Silk Road, while many forms of money were
used over various periods. From ports, such as on the Red Sea, goods were
transported overland along sea routes that linked the continents of Europe,
Africa and Asia. Some well known items traded along these routes include: lapis
lazuli, salt, metals, copper, iron, tin, gold, ivory, coral, gems, glass, porcelain, lacquerware, furs, horses,
wool, slaves, animals, plants, grapes, ceramics, jade,
bronze objects, amber, dyes, fragrances, spices, tea, rice, and luxury items
such as silk. The exchange of goods also served as important channels and paths
for cultural, political, commercial, and technological exchange between traders,
merchants, pilgrims, rulers, soldiers, nomads, emissaries, envoys, missionaries,
explorers, spies, bandits, and urban dwellers. The journeys of China's emissary,
Zhang Qian, in the 2nd century BC brought the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220AD)
into political contact with numerous kingdoms in Central Asia, and opened up the
East-West trade route known as the Silk Road. See
Items of Trade
Train - The Orient Express The Orient Express was the name of a long-distance
passenger train originally operated by the Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits.
Its route has changed many times, and several routes have in the past
concurrently used the name. Although the original Orient Express was simply a
normal international railway service, the name has become synonymous with
Oriental mystery, intrigue and luxury travel. The two city names most intimately
associated with the Orient Express are
Paris and
Istanbul,
the original endpoints of the service.
The route was made even more famous by the works of Agatha Christie and
Graham Greene. Many passengers stayed at the legendary
Pera Palace Hotel.
Today, the
Sirkeci Terminal in Istanbul, which was originally opened in 1890 as
the terminus of the
Orient Express, is the main connection node of the Turkish railway
network with the rest of Europe.
Transoxiana (Transoxania) is a name used for the portion of Central
Asia corresponding approximately with modern-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and
southwest Kazakhstan. Traditionally the land beyond the Oxus River, a
traditional boundary of Iran with the outside world.
Travel Literature (travelogue) is travel writing of literary value.
Travel literature typically records the experiences of an author touring a place
for the pleasure of
travel. An individual work is sometimes called a travelogue or itinerary.
Early examples of travel literature include Pausanias' Description of Greece
in the 2nd century CE, and the travelogues of
Ibn Jubayr
(1145–1214) and
Ibn Batutta (1304–1377), both of whom recorded their travels across the
known world in detail. The travel genre was a fairly common genre in medieval
Arabic literature. Travel literature also became popular during the
Song
Dynasty (960–1279) of medieval
China. The genre
was called 'travel record literature' (youji wenxue), and was often written in
narrative, prose, essay and diary style. Travel literature authors such as
Fan
Chengdu (1126–1193) and
Xu Xiake
(1587–1641) incorporated a wealth of
geographical and
topographical information into their writing, while the 'daytrip essay'
Record of Stone Bell Mountain by the noted poet and statesman
Su Shi
(1037–1101) presented a philosophical and moral argument as its central purpose.
In the 18th century, travel literature was commonly known as the book of
travels, which mainly consisted of
maritime diaries. In 18th century England, almost every famous writer worked
in the travel literature form. Captain James Cook's diaries (1784) were the
equivalent of today's best sellers. The best known travel literature about the
Silk Road is by
Marco Polo
(1254 – 1324 or 1325), who was a Venetian traveler to China and the Mongol
Empire. More...
Tsagaan Agui (or White Cave) Archaeologists have discovered
750,000-year-old stone tools dating from the Early Stone Age in a remote corner
of Bayanhongor, Mongolia (also known as the Lower Palaeolithic Period of
primitive man, or hominids). Other important sites include: the Gurvan Senkher
Cave in southwest Mongolia's Hovd Aimag; Rashaan Khad / Rock in eastern Hentii
Aimag; and in Moojoo in Uvs Aimag northwest Mongolia.
Tuan
Wu-ku-sun Chung Tuan (1220-1221) Chinese envoy, Wu-ku-sun Chung Tuan was sent to the
regions of Central Asia by the Kin Emperor to negotiate peace with GenghisKhan. He was accompanied by T'ing chen, and sent as ambassador of the
emperor. More...
Tulip Althoughtulips are associated with
The Netherlands, commercial cultivation of the flower began in the
Ottoman Empire. The centre of diversity of the genus is in the
Pamir and
Hindu Kush
mountains and the
steppes of
Kazakhstan.
The word tulip is ultimately derived from the Persian language dulband
("turban"). The use of tulips in art, and the "tulip mania" which rose from Asia
and spread to Europe, is a fascinating story of how living organisms, such as
silkworms, plants, and animals were transported across the Silk Routes.
Turcology (Turkology,
or Turkic Studies)The study of
Turkic-Turkish and/or Ottoman language, literature, and civilization. A person who studies in this
field is called a Turcologist.
Turfan (See Turpan)
Turk According to Chinese historical records, the political existence of
the Turks in Asia commenced with the Xiongnu in the 3rd century B.C. The Xiongnu
were a confederation of
nomadic tribes
whose ethnic identity has been a subject of varied hypotheses (often referred to
as Turkic-Mongolic, or "the Huns"). The Xiongnu established a great empire under
the reign of Mete Khan. Defeating the Mongols and the Yuechis, they established
control over the western gates of China, as well as the trade routes.
Chinese sources from the 3rd century BC document the creation of the Xiongnu
Empire under
Modu
Chanyu (who became supreme leader in 209 BC). The empire was described as
stretching beyond the borders of modern day
Mongolia.
In the 2nd century BC, the Xiongnu defeated and displaced the previously
dominant Yuezhi
and became the predominant power on the
steppes north
of China. They were active in southern
Siberia,
western
Manchuria, and the modern
Chinese
provinces of
Inner Mongolia,
Gansu, and
Xinjiang. Relations between early Chinese dynasties and the Xiongnu were
complex, with repeated periods of military conflict, alternating with exchanges
of tribute, trade, and marriage treaties.
After the collapse of the Asian Hun Empire, the Göktürk Empire was founded at
the eastern foot of the Altai Mountains. The Göktürks employed the word “Türk”
as an official state name for the first time in history. Known in Chinese
sources as
突厥
(Modern Chinese: Pinyin: Tūjué, Wade-Giles: T'u-chüeh). More...
Turkey known as the crossroads between East and West, is also one of
the great crossroads of civilizations. Turkey is also unique in that it is
Asia’s foothold in Europe. The network of Silk Routes which began in China, extended
across the continent of Asia, and then into southern
Turkey and the Mediterranean. From this
region trade routes continued
onto European ports, or through the Near East down to North Africa. Maritime routes from
Istanbul (Constantinople)
and Turkey (Asia Minor) enabled trade to flourish between
Asia and Europe. During the period of the
Ottoman Empire
these maritime routes became vital links, as Europeans established embassies in
Constantinople, and trade activity decreased along the Central Asian land routes
after the 1500's. More...
Turkey was, and still is, an important crossroads for both overland transport
and maritime trade (the strategic
Bosphorus Strait is located
in Istanbul). These sea and land routes were closely linked throughout the
ancient history of
Anatolia, as well as during the Roman
and Byzantine eras when the city of Istanbul was known as
Constantinople.
As a bridge between two continents, Turkey and Istanbul have served as a melting
pot of cultures and religions, where major civilizations of the world have
intermingled for 8,500 years -- the reason why Istanbul is referred
to as "the crossroad of civilizations."
One famous site of ancient civilization in Turkey is "Çatalhöyük,"
a settlement in southern
Anatolia, which existed from c. 7500 BC to 5700 BC, and is the largest and
best preserved Neolithic site found to date. The remains of other civilizations
include:
Turkistan is a city in the southern region of
Kazakhstan
(Kazakh: Түркістан -
Türkistan /
formerly known as Turkestan - Russian:
Туркестан). The city of Turkistan is located near the
Syr Darya
river. It has a population of 85,600 and is situated 160 km (100 miles)
north-west of
Shymkent on the
Trans-Aral Railway between
Kyzylorda
to the north, and
Tashkent to
the south. Turkistan is one of Kazakhstan's historic cities with an
archaeological record dating back to the 4th century. More...
Xiyu (or "The Western Regions")was a historical
name specified in Chinese chronicles between the 3rd century BC to 8th
century AD that referred to the regions west of
Jade Gate, most often
Central
Asia, or more specifically the eastern most portion of it (the
Tarim
Basin) -- also sometimes referred to as Turkistan. More generally, the
Indian subcontinent and
Middle
East were also considered Western Regions. Because of its strategic location
astride the
Silk Road, the Western Regions have been historically significant since at
least the 3rd century BC. It was the scene of conflict between the
Han
Dynasty and the
Xiongnu until
the middle of the 2nd century (during the Tang Dynastic see
Turkic and Western Regions). The region became significant in later centuries
as a cultural conductor between
East Asia,
the Indian subcontinent, the
Islamic
world and
Europe. One of the most significant exports of the Western Regions was
Buddhism,
which was carried by traders and pilgrim monks to
China. The
Tang
Dynasty monk
Xuanzang
crossed the region on his way to study in India, penning the classic "Great
Tang Records of the Western Regions" upon his return to the Tang capital
Chang'an. In the 18th century, the
Qing
Dynasty conquered part of this region and put it under military
administration. In 1884, the region was established as a province under the name
Xinjiang. More...
Turpan (Turfan) near ancient Gaochang, Turpan is a city in Xinjiang, China,
that was a major stop on
the northern route of the Silk Road. During the Han Dynasty, Xiongnu nomads
fought bitterly with the Chinese for control of the oasis town. Many of the
historic treasures and ancient sites of the Silk Road are found in nearby areas,
including some 200 ancient city sites, grotto temples, beacon sites, tombs and
rock paintings. Many of the artifacts in the Xinjiang Museum were excavated in
Turpan.
Turpan is one of the two centers of Uighur culture, and was the earliest
settlement of the Uighurs since the 9th century. Local religion, Muslim rites,
art and architecture are all steeped in Uighur history. Turpan was also once a
Buddhist center of the Silk Road. The famous monk Xuan Zang of Tang passed
through Turpan during his journey to the west (the pulpit where he preached is
still among the ruins of the ancient city of Gaochang).
The Bezelik Thousand Buddha Caves are
a complex of Buddhist cave grottos dating from the 5th to the 9th century, and
are considered enduring artistic treasures of the Uighurs.
Aydingkol Lake
in Turpan is 154 meters below sea level, second lowest lying lake in the world,
after the Dead Sea of Jordan. Turpan's highest annual temperature is nearly 50
degrees C, with an annual rainfall of only 16 mm. Turpan is the lowest
inland basin in the world, with most of its inhabitants living below sea level. The region,
known as one of the hottest areas of China, is
famous for its sweet grapes.
More...
Mosque in Turpan
The Emin
Minaret and mosque is located along the Silk Road (near the ancient
Uyghur capital of
Gaochang).
The minaret is 44 meters (144 feet) high.
Turpan water system(Turfan Kariz Su Kanallari Muzesi) is located in the
Turpan Depression, Xinjiang, China, and is a
qanat system that
has been listed as one of the three greatest water projects of ancient China
together with the
Dujiangyan Irrigation System, and the
Grand Canal. A qanat (from Arabic قناة
) is a water management system used to provide a reliable supply of water to
human settlements and for irrigation in hot, arid and semi-arid climates.
Tyre was the largest and most important city-state of
Phoenicia, located on the
Mediterranean coast (now present-day Lebanon). From about 2000 BC
onwards through the Roman period, the Phoenician seaport of
Tyre was famous in Roman times for its silk
products and for a purple dye extracted from sea snails. "Tyrian purple" is a
purple-red natural non-fading dye which was an item of luxury trade and greatly
prized in antiquity.
More...
